Dakota Beacon

As stated previously, we owe it to ourselves to value good reasoning, spot bad reasoning, and avoid being taken in by those who would use us for their personal gain. Last week we looked at two major categories of logical fallacies: 1) avoiding the question and 2) making assumptions. Each had their respective variations.

Two additional categories of logical fallacies require consideration: 3) statistical fallacies and 4) the broad category of ordinary, everyday propaganda.

Statistical fallacies arise when an argument cites studies, polls, and surveys. Such devices place many at risk who do not know what to look for in statistical citations or even what questions to ask. Cited statistics may contain fallacies of a) generalization or of b) analogy.

We all generalize at one time or another by making broad observations about groups of people or things. A generalization is derived from a sample taken from a class of items. That sample is then used to say something about the entire class. Accordingly, generalizations attempt to make predictions.

Taking samples and making generalizations can be problematic. It takes skill, knowledge, and testing to properly construct an effective poll or survey that will yield a usable sample. When someone tries to persuade us using polls and studies, we should greet their claims with a healthy degree of skepticism if we do not understand the poll’s construction and statistical mechanism. And most folks don’t.

A corresponding statistical fallacy is the hasty generalization. Using a statistical sample that is either too small or not representative of the population results in a hasty generalization. In either case, a general conclusion could be arrived at without adequate supporting data or by using a poorly populated sample.

Reasoning by analogy presents another breeding ground for statistical fallacies. Reasoning by analogy compares two items with each other. If the items are the same in one or more ways, we conclude they may be the same in all other ways.

A strong analogy contains major points of similarity and differs in the minor points. A weak analogy contains minor points of similarity and differs by containing very few similarities in the major points. The fallacy of a weak analogy claims that two things with a few minor similarities are essentially the same although they share no major similarities.

The final major category of fallacies, and the mother of all persuasion, exists as propaganda. A propaganda technique inspires people to subscribe to a thing or idea without them thinking through the issue. Political speech and advertising typically fall into this category. Propaganda as a strategy simply spreads questionable ideas.

Propaganda appeals less to reason and more to emotion. Propagandists promise that if you vote for their candidate or use their product you’ll feel good about yourself. Since propaganda focuses on manipulating emotions rather than encouraging careful thought about an issue, the propagandist creates fertile ground for bad thinking. Furthermore, the propagandists would rather we use our heart than our head when making decisions. The propagandist hopes to divert attention from the real issue.

Here are some propaganda techniques. Appealing to fear makes the target audience feel apprehensive about the consequences of not doing the propagandist’s bidding. “Use Brand X toothpaste to fight tooth decay.” Implication: If you don’t, your teeth may rot.

Use of pity directs action in a specific way. An appeal to pity tugs at the heartstrings. An effective appeal to pity overrides a reasonable argument. Invoking a class of helpless people, such as children or the homeless, for example, usually does the trick. “Do it for the children” or “Give all you can; end poverty now” are classic ways to manipulate feelings.

The band wagon effect uses numbers to convince us to buy a certain product or vote a certain way. It manipulates the emotions by implying that there is safety in numbers. The message pressures us to go along as part of the group.

The opposite of the bandwagon effect is snob appeal. A propagandist would persuade us that accepting certain products or ideas would make us better than other people. We would be special or different in a good way if only we bought their product or idea. Exhorting people to “go green; save the planet” fits the snob appeal.

The next time you hear an advertisement or a political plea, listen for the fallacies in the argument. Protect yourself with safe reasoning.

Dennis M. Patrick can be contacted at (JavaScript must be enabled to view this email address).